Survival of the Fittest?

My brother-in-law John recently sent me a very interesting book The Thin Bone Vault: The Origin of Human Intelligence.  It was published on the eve of Darwin’s 200^th birthday last year by Frederick Menger, an Organic Chemistry professor of Emory University.  Menger’s lucid writing style helped me expand and update my extremely limited and superficial understanding of the fascinating but complex subject of evolution biology, a field that has been going through rapid advances in last few decades.  This though provoking book takes readers through just enough details and facts to confront one of the most challenging questions: how do modern humans, the only surviving homo sapiens, become so “smart” so quickly (in a matter of 10’s of thousands of years) after a less than impressive history of walking around naked on earth for few million years?  And has the widely accepted Darwin’s Natural Selection really provided a satisfactory framework in explaining how life and intelligence come to be?    

Creationists and supporters of Intelligent Design would be quick to reject the Evolution Theory and insisted that life and universe is created by a supernatural entity; a quick answer that could explain all the unexplainables.  Menger addressed this controversy early in his book.  I found his view pointed, objective, honest, and worth repeating here: “Science is theologically neutral; it depends upon observation and experimentation; and it accepts as little as possible on faith. Religion, on the other hand, is a system of belief; it is not amenable to experimental testing; it addresses issues of morality and values on which science has nothing to say. The two domains are time-honored but completely different. They are pursued for different reasons. They serve different functions.”

Below is what I have learned from reading Menger’s wonderful book.  Many of us are nodoubtedly familiar with the “classical” theory of evolution which was first presented systematically in Darwin’s 1859 landmark book The Origin of Species.  The concept of Natural Selection and the popular quote of “survival of the fittest” can be seen frequently today in many contexts.  Of course, contrary to the popular paraphrasing “survival of the fittest”, what really counts is the reproductive advantage not survival which is merely necessary.  Further, it does not suggest perfection and instead, “good enough” is more the rule rather than exception.  The fact is that Darwin’s natural selection however incomplete and imperfect it may be, remains the ONLY rational and uncontrovertible framework of evolution biology today.   By the way, Menger’s gave a succinct summary of the three premises upon which the concept of natural selection is based: 1)favorable traits in competitive environment are more likely to survive, reproduce and be passed on, 2)inheritable differences may take place randomly and spontaneously, 3)new species may appear after a very long time through graduate and minute changes.

Did Darwin’s natural selection close the book on evolution theory?  The answer is a definite “no”.  There have been continuing debates and enhancements on evolution theory by scientists although none has invalidated the theory.  As recent as earlier this month, there was a report on a research study that has identified more than 30 mutated genes of Tibetan people that allow them live more easily with the low oxygen Tibetan Plateau at an average altitude of 14,000ft.   The significance of the finding is at the rate of the evolution of these genes:  it took place within the last 150 generations when Tibetans migrated to Tibetan plateau about 3,000 years ago.  If it were due to random mutations alone, as one of the research leads Professor Rasmus Nielsen of UC Berkeley put it: "For such a very strong change, a lot of people would have had to die simply due to the fact that they had the wrong version of a gene."  This provides an encouraging evidence to support the idea of Directed Mutation by neo-Darwinism that “Natural selection tends to increase the frequency of those rare mutations or genetic changes that happen accidentally to impart survival or reproductive advantage to the organism.”

Mengers brought a more troubling open issue however that natural selection cannot explain how some complex traits came to be without any obvious and immediate use (such as survival like the Tibetans’).   Human intelligence – the unique and distinguishing feature of humans in the animal kingdom – is such an example.  Here is Menger’s one sentence summary of the current evolutionary dilemma: “ Natural selection is faced with the problem of explaining how a complex set of genes, controlling an expensive trait with no obvious benefit, came into permanent existence in such a short time period within every member of a small population (that was dispersed and geographically isolated over the entire planet) who had a low reproductive output and a low mutation rate."

By focusing on human intelligence, Menger tackles this central question of biology and stresses our understanding and imagination to the limit.  We therefore are forced to reexamine notions and validity of claims many of us have casually accepted and taken for granted.   How did the human intelligence come to be?  Why humans are so much smarter than other animals? Were ancient humans as smart as modern men?  If natural selection is the ONLY mechanism, how could one explain the incredible speed of the evolution of human brains?  How could human brain adapt to the environment so quickly and acquire new traits so effectively?  Could acquired traits be inherited by off-springs and if so, how?  The list goes on and on.  By the way, Menger did not want to get bogged down in defining what human intelligence is exactly.  I agree that Descartes’ short answer suffices for the purpose here – “I think, therefore I am”

Physiologically, we now know that human is smarter and posses many higher functions because we have a much larger neocortex than any other mammals (note other animals don’t even have a neocortex although it does not suggest they don’t have any intelligence.).  Incidentally, neocortex is a soft, six-layered, 2 millimeter thick sheet of neural tissue (with about thirty billion nerve cells, or neurons) that makes up the outer layer of our cerebral hemispheres.  We also know that underneath the neocortex there is the primitive brain which is common to those of reptiles (the ancestor of mammals in evolutionary tree) that regulates blood pressure, sex, emotions, and movement. 

The most impressive power of our human brains is nevertheless the incredible flexibility and adaptivity that can absorb and adapt to environmental stimuli, including ones that we have never seen or countered before.  We still don’t fully understand how it works but we can consider an analogy with our obviously limited knowledge and vocabulary, as Menger suggested, that unlike other organs, brain is born like a rather sophisticated hardware that gets “programmed” and “reprogrammed” throughout embryologic and developmental stages by some mysterious “software” responding to cultural and environmental events and interactions.

Even more curiously, as brain is so capable of adapting, could acquired traits be passed onto future generations and if so, how?  Could Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1774–1829), a brilliant amateur biologist and pioneer of evolution theory right before Darwin, be at least partially right when he suggested “inheritance of acquired traits”?

A little digression, genetics was born when the concept of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884).  In a short span of 150 years, we have learned a great deal of the secret of life and inheritance.   Geneticists now tell us that there are over 20,000 genes in the human genome and there are about one trillion nerve cells in the human brain with about 300 trillion connections (synapses). What we can observe about a trait, the so called phenotype, is the result of genotype, transmitted epigenetic factors, and non-hereditary environmental variation where the genotype of an organism is the inherited instructions it carries within its genetic code (from Wikipedia). 

To complete an alternative that supplements Darwin’s natural selection which has been successful in explaining the development of practical traits necessary for survival, Menger introduced the emerging theory of Epigenetic Evolution (epigenetic, simply means “over, above” the classical genetic that is based upon the precise DNA sequences and their mutations).  He used an example of “oncogenes”, mutated genes causing cancer.  It turns out that with mice, such tumor cells injected in early embryological stage and placed in uterus later grew into normal tissues. It thus suggests that genes can be turned on or off depending on epigenetic factors. To complete the detail, Menger offered a self-sustaining feedback process that could account for the evolution of human intelligence based on epigenetic model.

It certainly seems plausible and reasonable that even when gene itself remains the same, gene expressions, the process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional protein and RNA, can be altered by environment factors. That is, some genes could be masked or turned on and off depending on other non-genetic factors.  It would certainly explain the rapid evolution of human brain as epigenetic influences can be propagated much faster through e.g. social learning, education, etc. It does also raise interesting questions such as, if a population can and would gain advantages over time by being more educated and motivated (or in opposite direction, "wasted”)?

This would also explain the difference of the mental capabilities between the chimpanzee, our close genetic relative, and human intelligence despite their 99% similarity in genomes.  It is also encouraging to know that there is also no reason to believe humans have reached their intellectual potentials, however you define and measure it.  Of course we have not ruled out possible moments of “enlightenment” 頓悟 somewhere and sometime in the universe, like what was depicted in the awesome 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick & Arthur C. Clarke.   In the beginning of the movie, a group of apes discovered an odd black monolith and mysteriously realized afterwards that bones could be used as a tool and as a weapon to kill their fellow apes.  The rest is history, like what people like to say. 

Perhaps, just perhaps, starting with an innocuous event, another species suddenly commence a rapid evolution of their intelligence and ultimately contend with human intelligence.  Will “survival of the fittest” be back in play then?  Talk to you soon!

Happy Father’s Day

Today, the third Sunday of June, is Father’s Day for many countries in the world including U.S.  For me, I may have another shot on August 8^th since that is when Father’s Day is celebrated in Taiwan (the logical choice was based on the pronunciation of the month and the day in Mandarin which is homophonous with the word “Ba Ba” or father).  What I haven’t figured out is how did mainland China end up celebrating it on the same day as U.S. who was the first country to designate the third Sunday of June as Father’s Day.

For those who have been involved in or following the movements of women’s rights and equality may be surprised to learn that father’s day did not come easily despite decades of campaigns by some.  Indeed, while Mother’s Day has a very long history and universal acceptance, public support (men and women included) for honoring fatherhood has never seemed that strong.  According to the Wikipedia article on Father’s Day, the first observance to celebrate Father’s Day took place in Spokane Washington exactly 100 years ago.  It was started by Sonora Smart Dodd who pushed the idea of honoring fathers like hers.  However it wasn’t until 1966 when President Lyndon Johnson finally issued the first presidential proclamation designating the third Sunday in June as Father's Day.  It took another six years to make it a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.

There are probably many reasons why Father’s Day has not been taken as seriously.  To begin with, some wives and mothers may question if they are truly deserving and fathers themselves may not want to attract too much attention either.  My guess for the top reasons are:  Firstly, receiving sentimental gift seems to be going against the macho image of men.   Secondly, as many fathers were the primary bread earners of the house, gifts from the family may come at the expense of the fathers, as illustrated by satires like the following poem quoted in Leigh Eric Schmidt’s 1997 book Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holiday,

The Old man wept, and his teardrops swept

Like rain on the Summer hills.

“It was Father’s Day and his hair turned gray,

For he knew he must pay the bills.”

As a further evidence, the manager of a local Chinese restaurant told us few weeks ago that their Father’s Day specials are better deals and are cheaper than ones offered during Mother’s Day.   When asked why they would price as such, his answer was that it is usually the father who pays for the celebration!

Of course, commercialization is inevitable for Father’s Day despite the objection and complaints by the purists.  Why wouldn’t merchants try to capture the opportunity to make more money?  The way I look at it is at least it can serve as a reminder for those who otherwise may have forgotten about it completely.  To figure out what are popular gifts for Father’s Day, one can simply check out the advertisements and promotions.  Apparently the top choices include clothes, power tools, and goods related to hobbies.  For big ticket items, it would be either something allowing fathers work more efficiently like a power mower/riding mower, or cook more efficiently like gas grill, or watch sport programs like a large HDTV.   In contrast, flowers, jewelry, and pampering treats like spa seem to be more popular for mothers.   Of course, going out to eat is almost a given for Mother’s Day nowadays which is the busiest day of the year for restaurants.  Fathers, on the other hand, can do BBQs with the new gas grill!  I suppose it is hard not to go out if the chef of the house is taking a day off! 

Talking about flowers and sentimental gifts, most people know that the official Mother's Day flower is the (white) carnation.   But how many of us know that the official Father’s Day flower is rose and have you seen anyone wearing them on Father’s Day?  Leigh Eric Schmidt’s book mentioned that dandelion was jokingly suggested as the flower of Father’s Day because “the more it is trampled on, the more it grows.”   With these words of wisdom, I would have to agree that dandelion is a better choice than rose indeed.

We watched the other night the 2007 Brazilian movie Cidade dos Homens (City of Men).  The main characters are two 18 years old best friends who grew up without knowing their fathers in one of the favelas (slumps) in Rio de Janeiro (yes, this movie is a derivative of  the 2002 award winning Brazilian movie Cidade de Deus(City of God)).   Threading through the movie is the yearning and the search for their fathers by the boys in this difficult neighborhood.  What I found specially touching was the brief conversations when the two shared their feelings - all they wished was to have their fathers around to tell them how to do little trivial daily life things.  According to a recent U.S. Census Bureau report, a little over 25% of children under 21 in the U.S. are living with approximately 14 million single parents of which the majority are mothers.  Fathers, the least you can do is to be there for your kids as much as possible regardless the circumstances.   Happy Father’s Day!

 

Snapshots of Spanish California

Last time, we mentioned an important historical figure named John Sutter and his mill near Sacramento in the history of the 1849 California Gold Rush.  The story did not take place completely in United States, technically speaking.  In fact, John Sutter’s settlement and business endeavors leading up to discovery of gold were granted under a Mexican Governor as a Mexican citizen.  California was ceded to the United States in 1848 when Mexico was defeated in the Mexican-American War and signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.  Prior to that, California was a part of the territory called Alta California (or Upper California) that was formed around 1770 by Spain and later became a part of Mexico in 1821 when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, the first European colonial power who discovered and colonized the Americas.

The capital of Alta California was Monterey which was founded in 1777 and located at the Monterey peninsula, 100+ miles south of San Francisco. With its beautiful scenery and easy access, it is a top choice for excursion trips when visiting San Francisco bay area.  Monterey is also a special place for us where we spent our honeymoon weekend 35 years ago.   

One way to enjoy a relaxing visit of the Monterey region in an excursion from San Francisco is to drive south on the famous California State Route 1, or simply Highway 1, one of the most impressive scenic coastal routes in the world.  While the road may be winding here and there, it is not nerve wrecking and does not give you the cliff-hanging sensation for the most parts.  It also offers frequent roadside stop opportunities for one to relax and enjoy the breath taking views of the coastline.  Thanks to the efforts of the residents and conservationists, most areas along the highway had managed to resist land development and retain its natural beauties.

That was exactly what we did in our recent two day visit of Monterey.  Our first random stop was at the Montara State Beach, a few miles south of Pacifica.  What caught my eyes was a big patch of magenta flowers on a slope at a distance south of the beach.  Two days later, when we had a walk between the Lovers Point Park and Perkins Park of Pacific Grove on Monterey bay, next to Monterey, we suddenly found ourselves greeted and surrounded by the very same flowers.  They form a natural colorful carpet and sometimes hanging draperies along the sandy trail between the road and rocky shoreline of the bay.  A little online research suggests that they are ice plant (or Carpobrotus edulis), an invasive mat-forming plant that was brought to California in 1900s from South Africa initially for the purpose of stabilizing soil along the rail tracks.   It is now spread widely in California and can be found in coastal habitats as far north as Eureka.  Below are some photos that I took from the trail.

13 miles south of Carmel, one comes to one of the most photographed bridges - the Bixby Creek Bridge.  The bridge spans over 700 ft long over the Bixby canyon and made Big Sur much more easily accessible.   It was built in 1931-32 during the Great Depression as one of the public works projects to help relieve unemployment.  The bridge is so aesthetically pleasing that it became an excellent illustration of the balance and connection of natural beauty and human development needs.   Here is a panoramic photo of the bridge and ocean taken from northwest side of the bridge.

Traveling another 20 miles, one comes to Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park, one of many state parks in Big Sur region.  A short walk under the roadway from the parking lot of the Park towards to the Pacific ocean, one is brought to an incredible view of a rare tidefall - waterfall that flows directly into ocean. It is the 80 ft high McWay Fall pounding on the sand beach right next to the ocean. 

Before we drove back to San Francisco, we stopped by the Carmel Mission, or the Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, a Roman Catholic mission church, founded in 1770 and named after Saint Carlo Borromeo who was the Archbishop of Milan, Italy and a reformist in16^th century.  Carmel Mission was the headquarters of the original Alta California Missions headed by Father Junípero Serra who was buried here upon his death.  It was painstakingly and authentically restored beginning in late 19^th century.  In 1987, Pope John Paul II visited the Mission as part of his U.S. tour.  Today, visitors are brought back to the mood of Spanish California over 200 years ago when wondering around the gardens, the courtyard, and the hallways of the private K-8 Catholic schools on the compound.  There are also some records and relics exhibited in the church and the museum galleries to complete the history. 

Carmel, the popular and lovely small artistry town is only 2 miles north of the Mission.  I can still recall vividly scenes from Clint Eastwood’s first directed movie – the 1971 classic Play Misty for Me.  Of course, this thriller movie set the bar for all female psychotic stalker films including the popular 1987 Fatal Attraction by Michael Douglas and Glenn Close.  I always wonder if anyone would ever dare to pick up girls in bars after seeing this movie filmed partly in Carmel.   Before I go, I will leave you with the movie’s unforgettable title song The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face by Roberta Flack and its lyrics.  It brought a new dimension to love songs.  Talk to you soon!

The first time ever I saw your face
I thought the sun rose in your eyes
And the moon and the stars were the gifts you gave
To the dark and the end of the skies, my love

And the first time ever I kissed your mouth
I felt the earth move in my hand
Like the trembling heart of a captive bird
That was there at my command, my love

And the first time ever I lay with you
I felt your heart so close to mine
And I knew our joy would fill the earth
And last, till the end of time, my love

The first time ever I saw your face
Your face
Your face
Your face

Sacramento – an Invisible Reality

Over the Memorial long weekend, we had a reunion party with three of my long time best friends and their spouses at Sacramento, California where two of them now reside.  Our friendships and bonds have lasted for almost four decades since I first met them at my early teens when we attended the same secondary school in Taichung, Taiwan.  As we crossed paths few times later in college, I am grateful that we have been able to stay connected despite our distinct career trajectories independent moves to different parts of U.S. with physical distances measured in thousands of miles. 

Sacramento is approximately 90 miles northeast of San Francisco and is the state capital of California.  It is located at the confluence of American River and the 450 miles long Sacramento River which continues south and enters the San Francisco Bay at its north end.  With a population of about half a million, it seems unable to sustain the media attention although it has been one of the top ranked best city in U.S. to live, work and play and has its unique places in American history.  Sacramento’s name originated from the word “sacrament” when Gabriel Moraga, a Spanish explorer who named the valley for the Holy Sacrament, a Christian religious rite that St. Augustine defined as "a visible sign of an invisible reality."  It has had nicknames like Suttertown (for John Sutter, a pioneering settler and entrepreneur of the region), Big Tomato (sorry, just doesn’t sound cool compared to Big Apple), River City (um, there are many other bigger rivers and bigger cities along them) and so on, but none of them seems to stick.

While San Francisco has been associated with gold by most (its Chinese name means literally “Old Gold Mountain”), you really need to travel to Sacramento to appreciate the history of the 1849 California Gold Rush where it all began.   On January 24, 1848, James Marshall, a foreman who worked for Sutter’s lumber mill on American River in Coloma, 50 miles east of Sacramento, found gold in the channel out of the water wheel.  By 1849, waves of fortune seekers from all over the world arrived through Sacramento River via San Francisco. 

On Memorial Day, we visited the Empire Mine State Historic Park in Grass Valley, 60 miles northeast of Sacramento and 40 miles north of Coloma.  Empire Mine, a rock gold mine, was one of the oldest and richest gold mines in California.  It has produced nearly 6 million ounces of gold (or $6 billion dollars worth in today’s gold market price) in its lifetime (1850-1956) with its massive 367 miles of underground passages and Cornish miners (Cornish is a Celtic ethic group of Cornwall, the most south-westerly part of England).   Here is a photo of the entry to the main shaft.  To get a sense of the wealth of the Empire Mine owner William Bourn, you can pay a visit to Filoli, a country house built by his son in Woodside (25 miles south of San Francisco) with a 16 acres of gardens on a 654 acres of estate that rivals and exceeds the Gilded Age mansions of Newport (see my March 20^th 2009 blog).

Traveling west From Grass Valley along HWY 20 and turning north onto Pleasant Valley Road, one comes to another historical site – the South Yuba River State Park.  Two wooden structures stood out: the beautiful Bridgeport Covered Bridge is one of only 10 covered bridges remaining in California.  Built in 1862, at 251 feet, it is the longest single span covered bridge in the United States (see photos below).  South of the Covered Bridge, there is a historic Dutch style barn built in 1860s that now houses exhibits of various types of wagons and farm equip including hay press.  Strolling along the river and through covered bridge, it is hard to imagine in those days, with the bustling traffic resulting from mining, they are a part of the Virginia Turnpike Company toll road.

Every time when visiting Sacramento, I can’t help but recall the often-ignored Chinese American history prior to the repeal of the 60 years old Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 by the 1943 Magnuson Act (that was a result of the new alliance with China after America declared war against Japan on December 8^th, 1941, the day after the Pearl Harbor attack).  The Magnuson Act permitted Chinese nationals who were already residing in the country, for the first time, to become naturalized citizens, and allowed immigration of Chinese for up to 105 visas per year as determined by the formula of the Immigration Act of 1924.  It wasn’t until the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965 that a larger and more equitable scale (for up to 20,000 visas per year) of Chinese immigration became possible.  The discrimination, lynching, and persecution had its root at the 1849 California Gold Rush with the arrivals of over 40,000 Chinese individual miners in 1850s.  Countless attempts and maneuvers through political and legal systems were made successfully to eliminate or reduce competitions from Chinese immigrants in mining and other businesses with the dwindling opportunity in gold mining.

The implementation of the First Transcontinental Railroad from 1863-1869 (between Omaha, Nebraska and Sacramento, California), initiated and supported by the Federal government, provided a temporary job opportunity and in fact started the second major wave of Chinese immigration.  The Central Pacific led by Leland Stanford laid 690 miles of track of the western section of the First Transcontinental Railroad through and difficult and deadly terrains with a large number of Chinese laborers.  With the completion of the railroad construction in 1869, the efforts in pushing out Chinese Americans became only more intense that eventually cumulated to the passage of Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 that banned immigration from China all together.

For a more detailed and exhaustive account of Chinese-American history, one can refer to the 2003 book The Chinese in America: A Narrative History by late Iris Chang.  Another important reference on my to-read list is the award winning 2007 book Driven Out: The Forgotten War against Chinese Americans by professor Jean Pfaelzer that focuses on the purging of Chinese immigrants in the Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountain region between 1850 and 1906.  When in Sacramento, don’t miss the wonderful California State Railroad Museum.    Another fascinating historical site in the region is the town of Locke 樂居 which is located approximately 30 miles south of Sacramento.   It is the last standing authentic Chinese rural town in U.S.  It was built in 1915, completed with shops, brothels and Chinese school, by and for local Chinese immigrants and is still in exactly the same structures as 90 years ago although only 10% residents are Chinese-Americans now.

I had a great time in Sacramento, seeing and chatting with old friends.  I will surely be back for more of its natural beauty and less visible parts of its history and reality.  Talk to you soon!